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<title>Learning cycle</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Learning cycle</span></span>

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<p>A <b>learning cycle</b> is a concept of how people learn from experience. A learning cycle will have a number of stages or phases, the last of which can be followed by the first.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="John_Dewey">John Dewey</h2></div><p>

In 1933 (based on work first published in 1910), <a href="John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a> described five phases or aspects of reflective thought: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">

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</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In between, as states of thinking, are (1) suggestions, in which the mind leaps forward to a possible solution; (2) an intellectualization of the difficulty or perplexity that has been felt (directly experienced) into a problem to be solved, a question for which the answer must be sought; (3) the use of one suggestion after another as a leading idea, or hypothesis, to initiate and guide observation and other operations in the collection of factual material; (4) the mental elaboration of the idea or supposition as an idea or supposition (reasoning, in the sense in which reasoning is a part, not the whole of inference); and (5) testing the hypothesis by overt or imaginative action.</p></blockquote><div class="templatequotecite"><p style="display: inline; padding-left: 2.3em;">— <a href="John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>, <i><a href="How_We_Think" title="How We Think">How We Think</a></i>, revised edition, 1933<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kurt_Lewin">Kurt Lewin</h2></div>

<p>In the 1940s, <a href="Kurt_Lewin" title="Kurt Lewin">Kurt Lewin</a> developed <a href="Action_research" title="Action research">action research</a> and described a cycle of:

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<ol><li>Planning</li>

<li>Action</li>

<li>Fact finding, about the result of the action</li></ol><p>

Lewin particularly highlighted the need for fact finding, which he felt was missing from much of management and social work. He contrasted this to the military where </p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>the attack is pressed home and immediately a reconnaissance plane follows with the one objective of determining as accurately and objectively as possible the new situation. This reconnaissance or fact-finding has four functions. First it should evaluate the action. It shows whether what has been achieved is above or below expectation. Secondly, it gives the planners a chance to learn, that is, to gather new general insight, for instance, regarding the strength and weakness of certain weapons or techniques of action. Thirdly, this fact-finding should serve as a basis for correctly planning the next step. Finally, it serves as a basis for modifying the "overall plan."</p></blockquote><div class="templatequotecite"><p style="display: inline; padding-left: 2.3em;">— <a href="Kurt_Lewin" title="Kurt Lewin">Kurt Lewin</a>, Action Research and Minority Problems, 1946<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Learning_styles#David_Kolb's_model" title="Learning styles">Learning styles § David Kolb's model</a>, and <a href="Kolb's_experiential_learning" title="Kolb's experiential learning">Kolb's experiential learning</a></div>

<p>In the early 1970s, <a href="David_A._Kolb" title="David A. Kolb">David A. Kolb</a> and Ronald E. Fry developed the experiential learning model (ELM), composed of four elements:<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ol><li>Concrete experience</li>

<li>Observation of and reflection on that experience</li>

<li>Formation of abstract concepts based upon the reflection</li>

<li>Testing the new concepts</li></ol>

<p>Testing the new concepts gives concrete experience which can be observed and reflected upon, allowing the cycle to continue.

</p><p>Kolb integrated this learning cycle with a theory of <a href="Learning_styles" title="Learning styles">learning styles</a>, wherein each style prefers two of the four parts of the cycle. The cycle is <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quadrisect" class="extiw external" title="wikt:quadrisect">quadrisected</a> by a horizontal and vertical axis. The vertical axis represents how knowledge can be grasped, through <i>concrete experience</i> or through <i>abstract conceptualization</i>, or by a combination of both. The horizontal axis represents how knowledge is transformed or constructed through <i>reflective observation</i> or <i>active experimentation</i>. These two axes form the four quadrants that can be seen as four stages: concrete experience (CE), reflective observation (RO), abstract conceptualization (AC) and active experimentation (AE) and as four styles of learning: diverging, assimilating, converging and accommodating.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of learning styles has been criticised, see <a href="Learning_styles#Criticism" title="Learning styles">Learning styles § Criticism</a>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Honey_and_Mumford">Honey and Mumford</h2></div>

<p>In the 1980s, Peter Honey and Alan Mumford developed Kolb and Fry's ideas into slightly different learning cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-Mumford_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mumford-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The stages are:

</p>

<ol><li><i>Doing</i> something, having an experience</li>

<li><i>Reflecting</i> on the experience</li>

<li><i>Concluding</i> from the experience, developing a theory</li>

<li><i>Planning</i> the next steps, to apply or test the theory</li></ol>

<p>While the cycle can be entered at any of the four stages, a cycle must be completed to give learning that will change behaviour. The cycle can be performed multiple times to build up layers of learning.

</p><p>Honey and Mumford gave names (also called <i><a href="Learning_styles" title="Learning styles">learning styles</a></i>) to the people who prefer to enter the cycle at different stages: <i>Activist</i>, <i>Reflector</i>, <i>Theorist</i> and <i>Pragmatist</i>. Honey and Mumford's learning styles questionnaire has been criticized for poor <a href="Reliability_(statistics)" title="Reliability (statistics)">reliability</a> and <a href="Test_validity" title="Test validity">validity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<p>In the late 1980s, the 5E learning cycle was developed by <a href="Biological_Sciences_Curriculum_Study" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological Sciences Curriculum Study">Biological Sciences Curriculum Study</a>, specifically for use in teaching science.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The learning cycle has four phases:

</p>

<ol><li><i>Engage</i>, in which a student's interest is captured and the topic is established.</li>

<li><i>Explore</i>, in which the student is allowed to construct knowledge in the topic through facilitated questioning and observation.</li>

<li><i>Explain</i>, in which students are asked to explain what they have discovered, and the instructor leads a discussion of the topic to refine the students' understanding.</li>

<li><i>Extend</i>, in which students are asked to apply what they have learned in different but similar situations, and the instructor guides the students toward the next discussion topic.</li></ol>

<p>The fifth E stands for <i>Evaluate</i>, in which the instructor observes each student's knowledge and understanding, and leads students to assess whether what they have learned is true. Evaluation should take place throughout the cycle, not within its own set phase.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alistair_Smith">Alistair Smith</h2></div>

<p>In the 1990s, Alistair Smith developed the <em>accelerated learning cycle</em>, also for use in teaching.<sup id="cite_ref-Wegerif_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wegerif-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The phases are:<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ol><li>Create the supportive learning environment – safe but stimulating</li>

<li>Connect the learning – useful knowledge we already have</li>

<li>Give the big picture</li>

<li>Describe the learning outcomes we want to achieve</li>

<li>Input – new information to enable the activity</li>

<li>Activity</li>

<li>Demonstrate the findings of the activity</li>

<li>Review for recall and retention</li></ol>

<p>Unlike other learning cycles, step 8 is normally followed by step 2, rather than step 1.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="ALACT">ALACT</h2></div>

<p>In the 2000s, Fred Korthagen and Angelo Vasalos (and others) developed the ALACT model, specifically for use in personal development.<sup id="cite_ref-Korthagen2005_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Korthagen2005-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The five phases of the ALACT cycle are:

</p>

<ol><li>Action</li>

<li>Looking back on the action</li>

<li>Aspects of essential awareness</li>

<li>Creating alternative methods of action</li>

<li>Trial</li></ol>

<p>As with Kolb and Fry, trial is an action that can be looked back on. Korthagen and Vasalos listed <a href="Coaching" title="Coaching">coaching</a> interventions for each phase.<sup id="cite_ref-Korthagen2005_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Korthagen2005-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Levels_of_reflection">Levels of reflection</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Coherence_therapy#Hierarchical_organization_of_constructs" title="Coherence therapy">Coherence therapy § Hierarchical organization of constructs</a>, and <a href="Onion_model#In_psychology" title="Onion model">Onion model § In psychology</a></div>

<p>Korthagen and Vasalos also described an <a href="Onion_model" title="Onion model">onion model</a> of "levels of reflection" (from inner to outer: mission, identity, beliefs, competencies, behavior, environment) inspired by <a href="Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Gregory Bateson</a>'s hierarchy of <a href="Type_theory" title="Type theory">logical types</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Korthagen2005_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Korthagen2005-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2010, they connected their model of reflective learning to the practice of <a href="Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">mindfulness</a> and to <a href="Otto_Scharmer" title="Otto Scharmer">Otto Scharmer</a>'s <a href="Theory_U" title="Theory U">Theory U</a>, which, in contrast to a learning cycle, emphasizes reflecting on a desired future rather than on past experience.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 539–545">: 539–545 </span></sup>

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<ul><li><a href="Action_learning" title="Action learning">Action learning</a> – Type of approach to problem solving</li>

<li><a href="Action_research" title="Action research">Action research</a> – Methodology for social science research

<ul><li><a href="Participatory_action_research" title="Participatory action research">Participatory action research</a> – Approach to research in social sciences</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Adaptive_management" title="Adaptive management">Adaptive management</a> – Adaptive environmental assessment and management (AEAM)</li>

<li><a href="Decision_cycle" title="Decision cycle">Decision cycle</a> – Sequence of steps for decision-making

<ul><li><a href="OODA_loop" title="OODA loop">OODA loop</a> – Observe–orient–decide–act cycle</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Double-loop_learning" title="Double-loop learning">Double-loop learning</a> – Learning model</li>

<li>Improvement cycle

<ul><li><a href="DMAIC" title="DMAIC">DMAIC</a> – Data-driven improvement cycle used for improving and optimizing business processes</li>

<li><a href="PDCA" title="PDCA">PDCA</a> – Iterative design and management method</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a> – Any process that has the aim of augmenting knowledge, resolving doubt, or solving a problem</li>

<li><a href="Intelligence_cycle" title="Intelligence cycle">Intelligence cycle</a> – Stages of intelligence information processing</li>

<li><a href="Intelligence_cycle_management" title="Intelligence cycle management">Intelligence cycle management</a> – Guiding the intelligence cycle</li>

<li><a href="Reflective_practice#Models" title="Reflective practice">Reflective practice § Models</a></li>

<li><a href="Tuckman's_stages_of_group_development" title="Tuckman's stages of group development">Tuckman's stages of group development</a> – Model of group development</li>

<li><a href="Validated_learning" title="Validated learning">Validated learning</a></li></ul>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFDewey1933" class="citation book cs1"><a href="John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey, John</a> (1933). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/howwethinkrestat00dewerich"><i>How we think: a restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process</i></a></span> (Revised ed.). Boston; New York: D.C. Heath and Company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/howwethinkrestat00dewerich/page/107">107</a>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/603884">603884</a>.</cite> The original edition was published in 1910: <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/194219">194219</a>.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLewin1946" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Kurt_Lewin" title="Kurt Lewin">Lewin, Kurt</a> (November 1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130810203435/http://bscw.wineme.fb5.uni-siegen.de/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d759359/5_1_ActionResearchandMinortyProblems.pdf">"Action research and minority problems"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="Journal_of_Social_Issues" title="Journal of Social Issues">Journal of Social Issues</a></i>. <b>2</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">34–</span>46. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1540-4560.1946.tb02295.x">10.1111/j.1540-4560.1946.tb02295.x</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bscw.wineme.fb5.uni-siegen.de/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d759359/5_1_ActionResearchandMinortyProblems.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2013-08-10.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKolbFry1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="David_A._Kolb" title="David A. Kolb">Kolb, David A.</a>; Fry, Ronald E. (1975). "Towards an applied theory of experiential learning". In Cooper, Cary L. (ed.). <i>Theories of group processes</i>. Wiley series on individuals, groups, and organizations. London; New York: Wiley. pp. <span class="nowrap">33–</span>58. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0471171171</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1103318">1103318</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAbdulwahedNagy2009" class="citation journal cs1">Abdulwahed, Mahmoud; Nagy, Zoltan K. (July 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://figshare.com/articles/Applying_Kolb_s_experiential_learning_cycle_for_laboratory_education/9242909">"Applying Kolb's experiential learning cycle for laboratory education"</a>. <i><a href="Journal_of_Engineering_Education" title="Journal of Engineering Education">Journal of Engineering Education</a></i>. <b>98</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">283–</span>294. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fj.2168-9830.2009.tb01025.x">10.1002/j.2168-9830.2009.tb01025.x</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8515507">8515507</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Mumford-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mumford_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMumford1997" class="citation book cs1">Mumford, Alan (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rgOoHgxObfwC&pg=PA121">"Putting learning styles to work"</a>. <i>Action learning at work</i>. Aldershot, Hampshire; Brookfield, VT: Gower. p. 121. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0566078903</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/35777384">35777384</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKleinMcCallAustinPiterman2007" class="citation journal cs1">Klein, Britt; McCall, Louise; Austin, David; Piterman, Leon (January 2007). "A psychometric evaluation of the Learning Styles Questionnaire: 40-item version". <i><a href="British_Journal_of_Educational_Technology" title="British Journal of Educational Technology">British Journal of Educational Technology</a></i>. <b>38</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">23–</span>32. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8535.2006.00599.x">10.1111/j.1467-8535.2006.00599.x</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-NASA-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NASA_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080923034649/http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/nasaeclips/5eteachingmodels/index.html">"5Es Overview: The 5E instructional model"</a>. <i>nasa.gov</i>. <a href="NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. 24 February 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/nasaeclips/5eteachingmodels/index.html">the original</a> on 23 September 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 January</span> 2013</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Wegerif-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wegerif_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWegerif" class="citation web cs1">Wegerif, Rupert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140517132716/http://elac.ex.ac.uk/dialogiceducation/userfiles/Review%20of%20Accelerated%20Learning.pdf">"Review of <i>Accelerated Learning in the Classroom</i>, by Alistair Smith"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="University_of_Exeter" title="University of Exeter">University of Exeter</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://elac.ex.ac.uk/dialogiceducation/userfiles/Review%20of%20Accelerated%20Learning.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 17 May 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Smith-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Smith_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1996" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Alistair (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/acceleratedlearn0000smit_c4t0"><i>Accelerated learning in the classroom</i></a></span>. School effectiveness series. Stafford; Williston, VT: Network Educational Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1855390348</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/36747433">36747433</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Korthagen2005-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Korthagen2005_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Korthagen2005_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Korthagen2005_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKorthagenVasalos2005" class="citation journal cs1">Korthagen, Fred A. J.; Vasalos, Angelo (February 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033203/http://kernreflectie.nl/Media/pdf/Levels%20in%20reflection.pdf">"Levels in reflection: core reflection as a means to enhance professional growth"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Teachers and Teaching</i>. <b>11</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">47–</span>71. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1354060042000337093">10.1080/1354060042000337093</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18032926">18032926</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kernreflectie.nl/Media/pdf/Levels%20in%20reflection.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-03-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-03-09</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKorthagenVasalos2010" class="citation book cs1">Korthagen, Fred A. J.; Vasalos, Angelo (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2nOpVDNKMBYC&pg=PA529">"Going to the core: deepening reflection by connecting the person to the profession"</a>. In Lyons, Nona (ed.). <i>Handbook of reflection and reflective inquiry</i>. New York: Springer. pp. <span class="nowrap">529–</span>552. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.486.6428">10.1.1.486.6428</a></span>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-387-85744-2_27">10.1007/978-0-387-85744-2_27</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780387857435</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/664583984">664583984</a>.</cite></span>

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